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Loverdos even called for the penalization of unprotected sex as a way to make the clients act responsibly. Finnish artist Irwin Goodman has made a song and an album called St.

Her first day in front of the camera has stayed with her. And I couldn't keep up with what they were all saying, and what they were asking of me. It was quite shocking.

But then I learned to be perceptive about which member was a Prostitutes Sasel paying customer and not to waste time with all Prostitutes Sasel them in the free online space. I do role-play sometimes, and a small part of it is nudity and masturbation," she says. While the members sometimes try to push her to do things she doesn't want to do, she is able to set the pace. The important thing is to keep a paying client online for as many minutes as possible.

To this end, Studio 20 employs trainers, a psychologist and an English teacher. Most of the clients are North American and European, so it is essential the models can communicate with them. But the English teacher, Andrea, has a Prostitutes Sasel that goes far beyond language skills. And we study a book of gestures because women must be sensual, smart and beautiful. Prostitutes Sasel is important too, so the models can talk about where the members are from.

Being able to discuss many subjects brings comfort to both parties. Studio 20 is the largest Prostitutes Sasel webcam franchise Prostitutes Sasel the world.

It has nine branches in Romania, including one employing "cam-boys" who service the gay market.

Not all models work from a studio. Sandy Bell - a graduate with two university degrees - Prostitutes Sasel one of a small army of women who webcam from home.

One advantage of being independent - and dealing directly with a web-hosting company - is that she earns a larger percentage of members' fees. Prostitutes Sasel want the connection.

Prostitutes Sasel members want you to call their name. Or to talk to them while you Prostitutes Sasel and strip. I'm very honest with them - they know I have a boyfriend, and they know we are not going to have sex in real life. Sandy Bell's partner lives with her in their high-rise flat on the outskirts of Bucharest.

He knows what she does, but her parents do not. It is not uncommon in this industry - even for studio owners - to hide their occupations from family and friends. This accounts for the fact that those who talked to the BBC in Bucharest preferred to use their cam name, or just a first name.

Unlike many who work in the sex industry, Sandy Bell does not worry about her own security. If he crosses a line or even Prostitutes Sasel he is rude to me, I just click the mouse and stop it. And I can talk to the administrator on the website and they ban the IP address, so the guy can never enter again even if he changes his nickname.

I mean, those people are thousands of miles away from me. They don't Prostitutes Sasel you - nobody touches you. You go online alone and you work online alone. This has nothing to do with prostitution. Is Sandy Bell a victim? She says she is not, though feminists such as Irina Ilisei say the question is more complicated than it seems. Are they women who choose it? Or perhaps they do it because they are psychologically manipulated, or they have a lack of economic stability.

Probably, it's a combination of all these factors. The webcam industry also does Prostitutes Sasel best to entice young women into the business. And the studios are very corporate - Prostitutes Sasel like an entry-career job in other fields. The language is all about empowering young women, being independent, learning skills, even getting bonuses if you Prostitutes Sasel your friends to try it too.

For Lana, Prostitutes Sasel, webcamming has provided enough money for her to bring up her daughter alone, and to Prostitutes Sasel about investing money in something "that will bring money to the country".

She plans to give up in two years' time. But some women are not free to make the choices Lana has. Oana, 28, counts herself as an escapee from the sex industry. At 16 - a minor - she fell in love with a boyfriend who persuaded her to do video chat.

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London:Pi cador. Huysmans ,J ef. Theconc eptoft hepoli tic al. Chi cago:Univer sit yofChicagoPres s. Such measures were not only exceptional, but were also serious breaches of human rights. Claiming to be taking precautions to protect society from a potential future AIDS epidemic, the state repeatedly disclosed sensitive information and mug shots of the alleged offenders to the media. In linking risk assessment, control of the population and technologies of knowledge, the paper will argue that the women were framed and criminalized as migrants and non-citizens.

The intervention of three international organizations — the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the International Monetary Fund — brought about Prostitutes Sasel changes and the introduction of policies that continue to considerably lower living standards and produce societal divides. Unsurprisingly, the crisis creates conditions conducive for right-wing political groups to flourish Mireanu and Gkresta, Consequently, the political discourse has shifted and new paradigms of governance have emerged.

Issues such as irregular immigration and public health have become prominent in Greek politics and public debates, and are subject of daily media attention. Irregular immigration was a major preoccupation for the government before the May national elections, whilst crackdowns on illegalised migrants living in the centre of Athens were and continue Prostitutes Sasel be common practice.

In spite of data suggesting that the numbers of undocumented migrants are much lower than usually Prostitutes Sasel, 1controversial police operations, such as Xenios Zeus,2 continue to enjoy public approval and are presented Prostitutes Sasel highly successful by the government and the media at large.

The imposed austerity programs made inequalities sharper for the people living in Greece. The country currently has one of the highest unemployment rates in the Prostitutes Sasel Youth unemployment figures were at According to a recent survey, sex trade in Greece increased Prostitutes Sasel 1.

On the one hand, people have less money Prostitutes Sasel spend on sexual services. On the other hand, in order to attract more clients, sex workers are pushed to take higher risks and have unprotected sex.

Budget cuts greatly impacted outreach programs designed to counsel and treat the most vulnerable, which provide services such as needle exchange and condom distribution, along with Prostitutes Sasel information on HIV prevention. The resources allocated Prostitutes Sasel social welfare and the healthcare Prostitutes Sasel have been reduced dramatically. In other words, Prostitutes Sasel access to services and preventive care is severely compromised.

As it happened with all vulnerable groups, the crisis increased the precariousness of persons using drugs, who might turn to sex work in order to sustain themselves. Since the urban environment is more vulnerable, the effects of the crisis are mostly felt and manifested in cities. The centre of Athens has been significantly affected, and the transformations of the urban landscape are glaringly noticeable.

The only business that Prostitutes Sasel to be flourishing is that of pawnshops. Evictions have become regular, and the Prostitutes Sasel of homeless people are on the rise.

These activities and the rise in HIV cases are being linked by the authorities to undocumented immigration. The paper will describe how a government project that was initially targeting undocumented immigrants evolved into the castigation of a group of twenty-seven seropositive women.

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Their personal data were disclosed, their mug shots were published by the media, and they Prostitutes Sasel charged with felony and imprisoned. Less than a year later, Prostitutes Sasel initial charges against them collapsed and all of them were set free.

In contrast to what the literature on risk and security suggests, Prostitutes Sasel will then argue that there is always an exceptional moment that triggers the generalised panic. Our methodology is a combination of interviews and discourse analysis. The case of the persecuted seropositive women in Greece can Prostitutes Sasel as a vantage viewpoint to look at the way in which a perceived risk is used as vehicle for social control and can shed light on the performative uses of a state of emergency.

Prostitutes Sasel groups that are Prostitutes Sasel as Prostitutes Sasel hostile or deviant migrants, homeless, people who use intravenous drugs, transgender persons, sex workers and even anarchists exist in the margins of society, in what is presented as Prostitutes Sasel state of disorder beyond legality.

This logic legitimizes intervention and justifies the intensification of violent repression in the eyes of the public. This case is also an opportunity to show how debating crises can be a prelude to Prostitutes Sasel state policies. A chronicle of castigation The parliamentary elections were due to be held in late April or early May. Already in early March, the Greek government had launched a crackdown on illegalised migrants living in the centre of Athens.

In the first days of April, the government announced and, subsequently introduced amendments6 according to which the law foresees the right to detain indefinitely third-country nationals, if they pose a risk to public Prostitutes Sasel. The law does not determine who can define which are the countries of origin whose nationals may pose a risk to public health. Neither are the criteria for selecting them stated. The text of the law reproduces wider racist discourses against migrants.

It is worth noting at this point that the crisis years are characterized by an explosion in the intensity of legislative Prostitutes Sasel. Some were part of the reforms that Greece agreed to in order to receive financial aid, while others did not seem to cover any pressing social needs. Often these changes in the legal framework were met with protests, and the procedures Prostitutes Sasel were far from democratic. The decision to introduce the above mentioned amendments was preceded by alarming statements of government officials regarding the imminence of a public health disaster caused by the presence of migrants in the city centre.

The Minister of Citizen Protection, Michalis Chrisochoidis, stated that the great concentration of migrants at the centre of Athens and other big cities creates severe threats for the public health, arguing that their unacceptable living Prostitutes Sasel cannot guarantee elementary hygiene standards Prostitutes Sasel It was a 22 year old woman from Prostitutes Sasel. The day after the Prostitutes Sasel made public all her personal data: not just her full name, her place of birth and Prostitutes Sasel, but also the date of birth, the names of her parents, the name of the neighbourhood where the woman was living in Athens, the address of Prostitutes Sasel brothel she was working at the time, and of the one she had worked before.

The information was accompanied by two Prostitutes Sasel of her that went instantly viral. However, during her court testimony, the woman said that she did not know she was a carrier. I had given fair warning that AIDS is increasing dramatically in our country and that part of the problem stems from illegal immigration and unregistered prostitution. Not only were the women forcibly tested, but also the notion of medical confidentiality was rendered impossible through the collaboration with the police.

The controls continued and more and more women — all of them unregistered and working on the street — were found to be HIV-positive and were prosecuted for Prostitutes Sasel.

The women explained that they were not aware of their illness, but found few sympathetic ears. Whoever wishes to get tested […] should call […]. That is, they [the clients] pay a bit more.

They go to her because she accepts [to have sex] without [using] protection. And of course she would accept [to have sex] without protection because she knew she is sick.

Loverdos even called for the Prostitutes Sasel of unprotected sex as a way to make the clients act responsibly. In the days that Prostitutes Sasel, the data of many more women were published: on the 3 rd of May five women,30 on the 5th of May another six,31 on the 10th of May five more.

In the meantime, various organizations were asking for the cessation of the castigation of HIV-positive women. The Solidarity Initiative with the Persecuted Seropositive Women, a group that was formed shortly after the first arrests, had a crucial role in having the mug shots removed from the police website.

Members of the group who were visiting the women in prison said that one of their first requests was the removal of their images. Unfortunately, public shaming is just Prostitutes Sasel of the tragic aspects of this story. The seropositive women were held in prison cells, not in a hospital. As a precaution, they were held separately from the rest of the prisoners, in the basement of the prison, in highly unsanitary conditions.

They did not have adequate medical care during this time. Their prosecution for sex work was based on the information given by one police officer, who testified for all the women approximately- were initially brought in to confirm their data.

The charges for sex work had to be dropped. It could be argued that these women Prostitutes Sasel controlled because of their appearance and their drug addiction and were persecuted and imprisoned for being HIV-positive.

By Marchall twenty-seven seropositive women were out of prison. Their release, however, enjoyed little or no media coverage and no statements were made on behalf of the authorities.

Security and HIV The ways in which the Greek authorities decided to deal with the issue of HIV-positive women in Prostitutes Sasel suggests a logic of securitization, whereby Prostitutes Sasel public threat is articulated as an issue of capital importance that deserves immediate treatment.

If such emergency measures are not taken right away, the threatening issue risks annihilating the political Prostitutes Sasel social body of the community Buzan et. The proponents of this theory suggest that in most cases the community can be the state or the society. Prostitutes Sasel the issue Prostitutes Sasel threatening the integrity and sovereignty of the state, then it is a case of national security, and it is dealt with by way Prostitutes Sasel military interventions.

In other words, if the leaders of a state have the legitimacy to speak for the state and declare a Prostitutes Sasel of emergency, the voices of a Prostitutes Sasel are always competing with one another for prevalence and legitimacy.

However, it is difficult to see how the events of spring in Athens could be fully explained through the grid of the theory of securitization. The health of these women themselves was of no concern at any point. The measures taken by the Greek authorities do not pertain to a scenario where the gravity of the threat would justify a general mobilization of the population Prostitutes Sasel the state.

To put it in the terms of the securitization theory, Prostitutes Sasel measures were exceptional, but not urgent. The securitization of HIV in Greece pertains to a less dramatic level. This is Prostitutes Sasel securitizing move that aims at restoring and reinforcing a certain social order and the values that it represents. Quite a few scholars have pointed out the ways in which such securitizing moves work.

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In this way, the authorities maintain a generalized feeling of insecurity among the population, by using data and expertise to point out the great degree of risk that Prostitutes Sasel society is facing from certain threats such as immigration or terrorism Bigo, ; Aradau and Van Munster, and Securitization is thus a process that involves as much scientific knowledge as political decision.

It is not only a discursive articulation of Prostitutes Sasel emergency, but a continuous mechanism of everyday assessments Huysmans, Securitization functions through technologies of surveillance, such as biometrics, CCTV cameras, fingerprints databases and so on, as much as through hard military defence.

It functions through insidious and mundane objects such as mail correspondence, Prostitutes Sasel or liquid recipients.

In this way, anything can become a threat, including an invisible virus. The securitization of the HIV Prostitutes Sasel of people living with AIDS is part of a shift in focus from a need to defend the Prostitutes Sasel territory to a need to defend and increase the population at large.

This results Prostitutes Sasel a form of knowledge and power that targets bodies and behaviours. This deviance is applied especially in the realm of sexuality.

By constituting the category of the deviant, as the bearer of the deadly virus, the mechanism that articulates the HIV and Prostitutes Sasel people living with AIDS as security threats establishes a logic of exclusion whereby the diseased Prostitutes Sasel to Prostitutes Sasel separated and quarantined from the rest of the society Elbe, This exclusion is necessary for the threat to be contained and eventually destroyed; but it is also a normalizing and disciplining measure that aims at underlining the consequences of deviant sexual behaviour.

As such, the person living with HIV becomes an outcast; she or he can transgress forcibly the boundaries of the social norm and quotidian life, only to be ostracised in the exterior, in the realm of the untouchables. AIDS becomes a stigma that exhibits characteristics of deviance, danger and debauchery. In the next sections, we propose two arguments that diverge from this view. First, we argue that the events of spring in Athens point to a specific mode of dealing with HIV-positive people, which is a mode of criminalisation.

Thus, we suggest that securitizing the HIV is not an open- ended process as Elbe argues, but a concrete mechanism for rendering certain groups as being outside the law, and therefore outside the possibility of claiming citizenship rights. Second, we argue that the Athens case shows that the securitization of HIV and of people living with AIDS Prostitutes Sasel be read only through the language of biopolitical risk.

Such a vocabulary emphasizes dispersed articulations of threat. Rather, the events of point to an exceptional moment Prostitutes Sasel action and coercion against the women living with HIV. Mechanisms of criminalisation We argue that the securitization of HIV-positive women in Athens was primarily a way to criminalize them.

In this section, we will show the two mechanisms of this criminalization, as well as the ways in which criminalizing sex workers is part of a series of moves from the Greek state against sex workers, immigrants and asylum seekers in Greece. The first mechanism is the criminalization of movement.

This is performed primarily Prostitutes Sasel a discourse of perpetual suspicion towards immigrants. As one of our respondents argued, Prostitutes Sasel action against HIV-positive women was devised from the outset as another step in the crackdown of illegalised immigrants in Athens.

Immigration as the movement of people across borders was a main target of the Greek authorities. Prostitutes Sasel, this is not just movement of people, but also that of a virus considered to be deadly. Hence, the movement of the carriers is doubly incriminated: first for having illicitly arrived in Greece, and second for having transmitted Prostitutes Sasel virus to Greek citizens. From Prostitutes Sasel outset, these actions were focused in particular areas of the city —such as Omonoia, Vathi square and Athinas street - which were perceived as a focal point of the disease.

Hence, the space where the women lived became at once an integral part of the stigma they were carrying along with the virus. Any attempt to move out, to escape the environment in which these tragic events happened brought again and again this stigma with it.

The second mechanism is related to the politics of citizenship and the discourses of inclusion and exclusion that appertain to them.

As we have shown in the outset, the Greek government is waging a continuous war on undocumented immigration, and the operation against alleged sex workers in Athens has been a Prostitutes Sasel of this war. Not having legal documents, not having a legitimate status within Prostitutes Sasel country, becomes an additional crime and a reason to hunt down the women who were working on the streets of Athens.

Here the issue of the published photographs becomes of capital importance. Furthermore, suspicion can be turned into conviction with the help of the visual evidence provided by photographs. This is a function Prostitutes Sasel has Prostitutes Sasel traditionally associated with the mug shot.

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The role of the mug shot is to elicit emotions, and in this case what was sought for was generalized panic. In this scenario, whether the women were guilty or not mattered less than the fact that the panic could have a recognizable face. The photographs Prostitutes Sasel meant to alarm Prostitutes Sasel general public — the Greek families — about the spreading danger posed by the women. In this way, several lines of exclusion were being drawn: Greeks versus Prostitutes Sasel, healthy versus diseased, clean versus addicted, normal versus deviant and honest versus criminal.

To this it should also be added the right of privacy that every individual has, which was completely abandoned in the case of the HIV-positive women. They built a triple identity for them: woman — sex Prostitutes Sasel — dangerous patient. In projecting these characterizations through the media to the public, they create the image of these women as individuals deserving the Prostitutes Sasel treatment.

Being infected with HIV was only a part of the discourse that criminalized the women who were arrested in the streets of Athens. If we are to focus on the nexus between disease and securitization, as Elbe suggests, we must pay more attention to the intimate mechanisms of criminalization.

The fact of carrying the virus is always entangled in several other discourses Prostitutes Sasel guilt Prostitutes Sasel panic. In the case of the seropositive women in Greece, we cannot analyse the securitization of AIDS without paying attention to the ways in which movement, space, citizenship and the mug shots operated as mechanisms of criminalization.

Risk and the exception In this section we take up the argument of the nexus between the securitization of HIV and risk.

Thus, risk policies are an integral part of the Prostitutes Sasel dispositif of governmentality Aradau and van Munster, Governmentality is the art Prostitutes Sasel self-governance in accordance to the principles of the dominant discourse.

Therefore, every social relation will be permeated by power Foucault, Within this Foucauldian framework, the locus of power is no longer the sovereign, who is situated on top of the social and political hierarchy; instead, power is dissipated through a series of micro-practices and discourses that make decisions hard, if not impossible, Prostitutes Sasel trace back to a single place of sovereignty Foucault: This argument has direct implications for how Prostitutes Sasel conceptualize political decisions.

Foucault opposes the view that power is exceptional, and therefore does not agree to a Schmittian view of the exception as the ultimate basis of Prostitutes Sasel decision Schmitt, The landscape of governmentality that emerges is marked with daily routines and technologies of surveillance, control and punishment that operate as a structure of continuous non-acts. In short, the exception becomes normality, and the political becomes a technology of everyday governance. Turning back to our case, immigration, AIDS and sex work were not novel or exceptional phenomena per se in Greece.

The particular conditions of these women poverty and even homelessness, drug addiction, trafficking did not interest the authorities. In their case, a fundamental right, the presumption of innocence, was not guaranteed. However, we argue that the measures taken were exceptional, in that the government performed a considerable number of serious breaches Prostitutes Sasel human rights that do not occur on a daily basis.

Prostitutes Sasel the articulation of a perceived threat [seropositive undocumented immigrant sex workers] as well as the claim of taking precautions to protect society the risk of AIDS as having the potential of a future epidemic that threatens the family, the core of the Greek societyare, as this case shows, mere means to achieve a greater goal, that of social control. As Foucault suggests, the dispositifs of government operate by generating knowledge and using it to discipline the deviance and control the majority.

In the case of the Greek sex-workers, knowledge was the first concern of the authorities — not the health of the workers, their vulnerability in front of the law or their traumatic experiences. It was first and foremost an explicit concern to spread out as much as possible all that was known about these women, including their Prostitutes Sasel. We cannot fully begin to interpret the actions of the Greek Prostitutes Sasel merely as raising awareness for the population.

Since the threat has been there for a long time, the policymaking in this case cannot Prostitutes Sasel explained convincingly on the basis of the precautionary principle.

After all, taking precautionary measures, aimed at risk management, could have been done through less radical, less spectacular measures by not penalizing patients and respecting their rights and privacybut through far more efficient means needle exchange programs, sex education Prostitutes Sasel schools, access to healthcare etc. Publishing the Prostitutes Sasel and the images of the women was framed as a way for reducing uncertainty-governing the risk for the Greek family society is being defined by the government in a monolithic way, as consisting primarily of monogamous Prostitutes Sasel Greeks.

Rather, the authorities articulated a set of rationalities regarding the present endangered state of public health, under the pretext of raising social awareness. The purpose, as stated, was to prevent Greek citizens Prostitutes Sasel panicking. The result, however, was precisely to create panic, in the form of desperate phone calls and the inescapable social control.

What the literature on technologies of risk assessment omits is that the continuum of dispersed and routinized practices associated with governmentality does not occur out of the blue.

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There is always an exceptional moment that triggers the panic. There is always a spectacular event, like the uncovering of the Greek alleged sex-workers, that sets in motion the processes of threat articulation and risk prediction. Within these moments of extreme emergency, one can detect not only the different agencies that are behind such constructions, but also the discursive building mechanisms of the knowledges needed to foresee or prevent such events from occurring in the Prostitutes Sasel.

If a person would dig in the issue a bit, she would see that it was an unbelievable event, something you would never expect to happen. Rather, the policies Prostitutes Sasel were enacted by the police and the Prostitutes Sasel institutions pertain to a mode of criminalization that targets the women as immigrants and non-citizens. Prostitutes Sasel policies also go beyond a dispositif of managing risk, as they are a serious and exceptional mis-treatment of marginalized individuals.

To conclude, we would like to point out that these women were not left alone. Several individuals and associations did intervene with assistance. They were provided with medical help and legal advice while they were in prison. One of the people that we interviewed told us that the people from the Solidarity Initiative brought the imprisoned women basic things that they Prostitutes Sasel lacking, such as toilet paper and phone cards.

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Thus, we suggest that securitizing the HIV is not an open- ended process as Elbe argues, but a concrete mechanism for rendering certain groups as being outside the law, and therefore outside the possibility of claiming citizenship rights. The webcam industry also does its best to entice young women into the business. Thi scas ei salso an op- por t unitytos how how debat ingcr is escan bea pr eludetor epressives tat epol icies.