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In Tokugawa times, a woman's sales price was called a ransom minoshirokin. Part 1. US State Law.

It is incumbent upon us to continue deepening our understanding of the gross injustices done to these victims. Yet if we hope to effectively refute the premises of the Washington Post ad, we must also take a closer look at the fate of prostituted Japanese who subsequently joined the ranks of comfort women and ask how they were recruited, what kinds of oppression they endured, and which laws—national and international— were violated in the process.

In the following essay, I first present an overview of state-supervised prostitution in pre Prostitutes Ikeda. I go Prostitutes Ikeda to demonstrate that a basic understanding of universal human rights and the strictures of existing international law should have obliged Japan to abolish the licensing and trafficking of human beings for sexual exploitation.

Specifically, I examine how the Japanese state consistently sidestepped demands for reform from both home and abroad in order to maintain the patriarchal social order, which it had no intention of changing. This institution had created a vast infrastructure for the procurement of women Prostitutes Ikeda on debt slavery, one sustained by permissive social Prostitutes Ikeda that naturalized sexual oppression, allowing the buying and selling of women to run rampant.

The Japanese Prostitutes Ikeda was able to exploit these features when it embarked on the hasty expansion of comfort stations in the late s. Procurers and intermediaries who solicited impoverished young Prostitutes Ikeda and herded them into the sex industry were, in principle, also required to undergo screening and licensing by the state. A defining feature of the Japanese system was its reliance on a legalized form of bondage.

During the Tokugawa period, women of the "pleasure quarters" were sexual commodities sold at will by their parents Prostitutes Ikeda brothels and then resold by owners and transferred from one sex venue to another for Prostitutes Ikeda rest of their lives.

This custom remained basically in tact when Japan dismantled the feudal regime and began building a modern state after In Tokugawa times, a woman's sales price was called a ransom minoshirokin. With the dawn of Prostitutes Ikeda modern era, this nomenclature was changed to the duplicitous "advance cash payment" zenshakkinbut the two were virtually indistiguishable. Until these de facto ransoms were redeemed in full, a woman could not leave her place of employment.

A large share of the fees she earned went to the housemaster, leaving the prostituted inmates with scant resources to Prostitutes Ikeda their bond. As a result, repayment generally Prostitutes Ikeda a long-term endeavor, with the woman having to secure new loans to cover ever-mounting living Prostitutes Ikeda other expenses. Many such individuals eventually became trapped is a sophisticated system of debt peonage from which escape was extremely difficult, if not impossible.

Licensed prostitution constituted a system of indentured sexual labor rooted in an intricate network of brothel businesses, brokers, and other sex contractors who made their living by buying and selling young women.

For all intents and purposes, this was a form of enslavement. Under this arrangement, prostituted women ostensibly leased space from house managers. There they met their clients and conducted business, and bordellos became popularly known as kashi zashiki —leased drawing rooms. Needless to say, this Prostitutes Ikeda a deceptive convention that tied the victims more firmly to the terms of their contracts.

That same year, Prostitutes Ikeda government adopted the Laws Regulating Prostitutes Ikeda, which established the legal right of licensed individuals to end employment whenever they wished. In Prostitutes Ikeda, however, the Great Court of Cassation ruled that while service contracts prohibiting discretionary job termination were invalid, cash advances were a different type of contractual instrument.

These obligations, the court said, remained in force and had Prostitutes Ikeda be met, even if the person involved had already left her Prostitutes Ikeda of work. To the purveyors of women, the cash advance and the service contract Prostitutes Ikeda two sides of the same coin: the bond agreement ensured that the contract, with its implicit no-termination provision, would be honored.

If the government had seriously intended to curtail human trafficking, it would have categorically outlawed the advance payment of bond-like financial obligations. Japan had to wait untilten years after the end of World War II, for the courts to ban this onerous practice. Under the regime of public prostitution, licensed women were subjected to regular medical examinations in an effort to prevent the spread of venereal diseases. As in Europe, licensing was a system by which the state undertook to protect the clients of Prostitutes Ikeda women from infection.

In Prostitutes Ikeda, this was the first of two rationales used to defend government intervention in the sex industry. In France, a state regulatory model for Japan, government control victimized pauperized lower class women with little or no Prostitutes Ikeda and few social resources.

The fealty they owed Prostitutes Ikeda fathers translated readily into the obedience they were expected to show their housemasters, doubly secured by the cash advance. A daughter's willingness to sell Prostitutes Ikeda to improve her family's fortunes was celebrated as the epitome of filial piety. In Japan, houses of assignation kashi zashiki everywhere normally maintained close relations with local military installations, even in peacetime.

The creation of a new garrison would often prompt town fathers to deliberate the merits of inviting brothels to set up shop, and in several instances, red-light districts were actually built from scratch for that purpose.

Comfort stations, on the other hand, were set up by explicit order of the military. The Imperial army and navy directed the procurement of women, albeit through private contractors in many cases, and Prostitutes Ikeda women interned there could not quit without permission from local military commanders. In the occupied territories of China and later the Philippines and Prostitutes Ikeda parts of Southeast Asia, the capture, sequestration, and perpetual gang rape of women were rife.

Seen in this light, the comfort women system is best understood as a wartime mechanism of sexual violence devised, activated, and maintained by Prostitutes Ikeda forces as they rapidly expanded their presence on the Asian continent after the late s.

For that reason, while acknowledging the inhumanity of "official" prostitution, we should not conflate it with the comfort women system, which I believe requires special treatment. Simply equating the two institutions risks minimizing a salient feature of the comfort facility: the threat of extreme physical violence to ensure compliance and sexual brutality, including serial rape and other atrocities, at the hands of Japanese troops. The governors were conveying their concerns about the activities of private agents operating in Gunma, Yamagata, Kochi, Wakayama, Ibaraki, Miyagi, and other prefectures who were attempting to solicit women for comfort stations being Prostitutes Ikeda, they said, by Japanese forces in Shanghai.

The agents claimed they had been commissioned by the Special Services Agency, a logistical unit attached to Japan's Shanghai Expeditionary Army. Prefectural police reported that the operatives had been propositioning bar workers shakufu for jobs in Shanghai but suspected that their real intention was to assemble women Prostitutes Ikeda traffic them to Prostitutes Ikeda establishments in distant parts of Asia.

The RAA facilities had also been illegal, of course, but had enjoyed police protection for obvious reasons.

After investigating the matter, they learned that the men were in fact kashi zashiki proprietors and licensed recruiters hailing from Kobe, Osaka, and other large cities.

The police investigation also confirmed that the Shanghai Expeditionary Army had indeed asked prefectural police authorities to help recruit brokers for the purpose of rounding up some 3, shakufu for comfort stations being planned for the Chinese interior. The business agents and Prostitutes Ikeda were in possession of service contracts, certificates of parental consent, receipts for loan agreements, and documents specifying the length of duty. The terms of employment included a two-year obligation, a requirement that the women be between Prostitutes Ikeda and 30, and a Prostitutes Ikeda to repay the monetary advance upon completion of the contract.

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Accounts by former army officers also prove beyond a doubt that brothel keepers in Japan were instructed by military authorities to recruit women and set up sex facilities in China. Both authors state unequivocally that the Imperial Prostitutes Ikeda took a direct hand in running these venues. Testimonials of victim-survivors corroborate these stories, indicating that the army and navy relied directly or indirectly on the trafficking networks of licensed Prostitutes Ikeda in Japan to meet comfort station staffing quotas overseas.

Although not yet 10 at the time, she was tied to a Prostitutes Ikeda contract. Yamauchi became a geisha, adopting the sobriquet Kikumaru as her professional name. Indebtedness was not the only factor that pushed Yamauchi to enter a comfort facility. After moving into the new venue, she was assigned to serve Prostitutes Ikeda naval officers.

After the war, however, rampant postwar inflation quickly eroded those savings, and her past as Prostitutes Ikeda comfort woman followed her as she moved from job to job, working as a geisha or bar hostess. She grew bitter that she and other women who had served their country in its time of need would be treated so poorly by society in peacetime.

In Aprilat the age of 48, she gassed herself to death in her room. She began her career as a geisha Prostitutes Ikeda later Prostitutes Ikeda to work in a comfort station, where she found herself better off than before.

But consider things from her perspective. Sold by her parents before the age of 10, forced into a life of subjugation with no realistic prospects of leaving, Prostitutes Ikeda held in contempt by society at Prostitutes Ikeda, she must have found it impossible to resist the dual opportunities of clearing her debts and serving her country under military sponsorship.

In other words, she might not have agreed to such a proposal had she not been bonded to a profession that required her to Prostitutes Ikeda her financial obligations with her body but with little hope of ever being freed. Not even for a day.

Moreover, Yamauchi happened to work for officers and was lucky Prostitutes Ikeda be able return to Japan alive after finishing her contract. Other comfort women were not so fortunate. As the war drew to an end, many were killed in the fighting, forced to participate in group suicides, or left to fend for themselves in the jungles of Southeast Asia and the Pacific by the same soldiers who had prostituted them day in and day out.

The state and the military cynically used and mistreated them and then, ultimately, discarded them. Prostitutes Ikeda is important to note, however, that by the s, licensed prostitution and the system of debt slavery that underwrote it were increasingly viewed by domestic and world opinion as embarrassing anachronisms to be abolished.

The state ordinance that purportedly liberated prostituted women failed to do so because of the obfuscation of government authorities and the Prostitutes Ikeda of the courts, which allowed this system to flourish. In the s and s, however, an international consensus had emerged Prostitutes Ikeda condemned the selling of women into sexual bondage as a serious human rights abuse. In fact, the institution was on its last legs.

But the Japanese government refused to concede to world opinion. Instead, it sought new justifications to postpone a final resolution of the question, and in Japan and its colonies, trafficking in human lives continued unabated. Japan and the international movement for the abolition of the trafficking of women.

By the early 20 th century, the Western system of certifying brothels, registering prostitutes, and requiring periodic medical checks was regarded as abetting the trafficking of women. In the s, many Western nations eliminated state licensing both at home and in their Asian colonies.

The United Kingdom, the United States, and the Netherlands, for example, closed down bordellos and other sex venues in Singapore, Manila, and the Dutch East Indies; drove out the pimps; and repatriated their nationals. These efforts were not entirely wholehearted and achieved very uneven results, but they represented an important departure from the past.

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Japan acceded to both treaties in When the government ratified the accord init demanded and was granted an exception allowing women over 18 to be indentured for prostitution. In so doing, it also handed brothel operators and concessionaires the legal authority to solicit these young women—minors under international law—for sexual exploitation. Prostitutes Ikeda the Japanese home islands, abolitionists worked to raise public awareness of the global movement to end legalized prostitution.

Christian social activist Kagawa Prostitutes Ikeda alerted League of Nations officials to the inequities of licensing in Japan, and in the s Prostitutes Ikeda s, popular support for prohibition grew apace. Bills to repeal state prostitution were submitted repeatedly in the Imperial Diet and provincial legislatures.

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A League survey of the early s see below reported more than 50, registered prostitutes Prostitutes Ikeda the Japanese main islands, but pointed out that another 2, Japanese nationals—ethnic Japanese, Koreans, and Taiwanese—had been prostituted in areas outside the Japanese Empire, including northern China and Shanghai. It was the usual system of recruitment … Prostitutes Ikeda licensed brothels.

Domestically, brothel owners, procurers, and related agents constituted a potent political force whose clout was not easily ignored.

As a result, Japan never implemented an effective policy to prevent trafficking. Prostitutes Ikeda the world stage, it paid lip service to the ideal of abolition, belatedly ratifying the anti-trafficking Prostitutes Ikeda inbut made no substantial effort to reform the system of state licensing and trafficking.

During the s, the League initiated a series of fact-finding surveys in each Prostitutes Ikeda of the world to track the transport of women across national boundaries for sexual exploitation. Japan did its utmost to dissuade the League from undertaking the Asian survey.

Undeterred, inthe League dispatched the Commission of Enquiry into Traffic in Women and Children in the East to study conditions in Asia, including areas where Japan controlled the trade in women. Bureaucrats in the office of the Kwantung Leased Territory, for instance, replied Prostitutes Ikeda that cash-advance contracts were different from employment contracts and that the women could quit before the advance was fully repaid, thus no coercion was involved. The women were able to use the cash loan as they liked, spending it all on themselves if they Prostitutes Ikeda, the officials explained.

It was the woman's decision Prostitutes Ikeda or not to entrust the money to her parents and work to repay it. Neither fraud nor compulsion was involved, hence no trafficking. The women were independent and exercised free will, the bureaucrats insisted implausibly.

The certification of proprietors and procurers was also a false problem: licensing allowed the authorities weed out the bad elements. The police verified applications, conducted identity checks, and made certain that only the most qualified were approved.

Unimpressed by these answers, League Prostitutes Ikeda pressed the Home Ministry with tough counterarguments, to which the ministry was unable to respond. For example, they gave the example of a young Prostitutes Ikeda who, believing it her finial duty to help her parents, signed a cash-advance contract and became a licensed prostitute. Would the ministry say she was Prostitutes Ikeda of her own free will, the investigators wanted to know.

How does the ministry define "free will," they asked. The officials could not answer. Finally, the League team cross-examined the bureaucrats relentlessly on the question of licensing procurers and auxiliaries. Listening to the bureaucrats' side of the story, they said, it sounded as if licenses are only granted to people of good character.

But do reputable people trade in young women, they asked. When the commission filed its initial report inTokyo protested mightily. Eventually it succeeded in having three of four offending criticisms watered down Prostitutes Ikeda deleted from the final report, which was issued on December 10, Brothel businesses, of course, but procurers and other contractors also are publicly certified to trade in registered prostitutes, geisha, and barmaids.

Police officers often intervene to prevent prostitutes from terminating their contracts. Geisha houses habitually Prostitutes Ikeda girls as apprentices and then urge them to take patrons. Points 2, 3 and 4 were either modified or eliminated altogether.

In any event, the League of Nations had spoken, and inthe Japanese government felt obliged to actually draft a policy proposal for phasing out the state administration of prostitution. The policy paper called for eliminating, in principle, the licensing system and drawing-room rental business. Yet it left the most notorious features of the system in tact by refusing to ban loan advances and the certification of sex Prostitutes Ikeda. Through a combination of diplomatic feint and verbal sophistry, the government managed to protect licensed Prostitutes Ikeda at a time when world opinion favored eliminating the trafficking of women and children.

By then, however, the Imperial military had committed itself to the invasion of China, and the Asia-Pacific Prostitutes Ikeda lay just around the corner. Abolition would have to await the conclusion of World War II. Even Prostitutes Ikeda it were true, as the revisionists Prostitutes Ikeda, that the comfort women were licensed sex practitioners, that would still be nothing to brag about.

The prewar licensing system was built on coercive practices and a sophisticated trafficking network that the League of Nations condemned as a violation of human rights.

Many of the concessionaires hired by the Japanese military to round up women for its wartime sex venues abroad were the same people who had been formally authorized by the Prostitutes Ikeda to buy, sell, and sexually exploit young women in Japan. In that sense, licensing was one of the Prostitutes Ikeda embedded elements that facilitated the systematic, large-scale recruitment of comfort women in Japan proper, Korea, and Taiwan after Prostitutes Ikeda The women legally prostituted in Japan and trafficked so effortlessly outside the Empire into military comfort stations in Asia and the Pacific are a case in point.

To grasp what made this unprecedented mobilization of women possible, we must look critically at two closely related factors.

One is a prewar society with its culture of male sexual prerogative that allowed the licensing of socially vulnerable women for public sex to flourish unobstructed.

The other is a state that systematically ignored and even actively subverted opportunities to terminate this antiquated institution in order to perpetuate the status quo. The common thread uniting them is the assertion that all comfort women—both those prostituted under state license and those commandeered Prostitutes Ikeda some combination of enticement, fraud, intimidation, or brute force—elected that fate willingly for personal gain.

Such thinking was firmly rejected more than 80 years ago, well before Prostitutes Ikeda advent of the Asia-Pacific conflict, by an influential segment of domestic and international opinion. When the current prime minister of Japan and revisionist political and intellectual leaders openly espouse the same discredited patriarchal ideology of the prewar era, they reveal an ignorance not only of history but also of fundamental human rights that is profoundly disturbing.

The denialists admit the existence of the military Prostitutes Ikeda system itself.

But they are determined to conceal the coercive apparatus that undergird this institution, exculpate the wartime state Prostitutes Ikeda Imperial armed forces, and absolve the present government of any legal responsibility for the depredations Prostitutes Ikeda its war-era predecessors. It is our task as researchers to serve the cause of truth and justice by exposing the historical distortions and misrepresentations that inform revisionist arguments. On the Issue of "Comfort Prostitutes Ikeda.

August 4. McDougall, G. Contemporary forms of slavery: Systematic rape, sexual slavery and slavery-like practices during armed conflict. Report to the U. The comfort women system was found to have violated Japan's international treaty obligations under the Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, the International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children, and the ILO Convention Concerning Forced Labor, in Prostitutes Ikeda to the norms of customary international law encoded in the and covenants.

Part 1. December 4, pp.

Quotation is from p. With this reservation, we follow established usage here and employ the familiar English Prostitutes Ikeda. Between andJapan's leading opposition parties jointly submitted "wartime sexual coercion" bills to the House of Councilors on 12 occasions. The draft legislation would have obliged the government to apologize "for violating the honor and dignity" of the victims and provide them with formal state compensation.

With a single exception, however, conservative lawmakers succeeded in keeping the bills from even reaching the Prostitutes Ikeda docket, and the Prostitutes Ikeda were never debated. Attempts at Legislation in the Japanese Diet. The Asian Women's Fund. The bilateral ministerial agreement of December was reached without consulting South Korean Prostitutes Ikeda.

In the unsigned joint memorandum, Foreign Minister Kishida Fumio conveyed indirectly on behalf of Prime Minister Abe a vaguely worded apology acknowledging some Prostitutes Ikeda of Imperial military culpability in the comfort women system. On January 18,however, Japan reverted to business as usual. Japanese Foreign Minister Kishida Prostitutes Ikeda the House of Councilors Budget Committee that, "The term 'sex slaves' doesn't match the facts and … should not be used.

The government's stance has not changed at all since the … Prostitutes Ikeda Abe administration. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Prostitutes Ikeda Women CEDAW that, "it is not appropriate … to take up the comfort women issue in terms of the Prostitutes Ikeda of [Japan's] duties regarding the Convention [on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women].

The next day, he Prostitutes Ikeda the CEDAW that, "the forceful taking away" of women by Japanese administrative and military authorities "could not be confirmed in any of the documents that the Government of Japan was able Prostitutes Ikeda identify in [its ] study. Asked by a Prostitutes Ikeda of the committee, "if Japan [is] so willing to solve the issue, would it send an apology to all comfort women," Sugiyama ignored the question altogether. The query Prostitutes Ikeda well founded, however.

Finally, on October 26,the South Korean foundation created to administer the Japanese humanitarian contribution, set up in July of that year, asked Abe to provide an official letter of apology to South Korean survivors, Abe replied dismissively that he was "not considering such an idea at all. January 18, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. February 16,p. For Prostitutes Ikeda requiring readily accessible information, the Japanese government's original investigation of the comfort women system is available online Prostitutes Ikeda English, Japanese, and Korean at the website of the now defunct Asian Women's Fund see below.

Although incomplete, the military and related documents displayed there are essential reading for a deeper understanding of this problem. The Japanese Military and Comfort Women.

Since then, researchers have discovered more than 1, additional wartime military and government records related to the comfort women system—materials government officials refuse to Prostitutes Ikeda.

The site is maintained in Japanese, Korean, Chinese, and English, but documents are in Japanese only. Many of these documents have been found by Hayashi Hirofumi. See Hayashi Nihongun "ianfu" mondai no kakushin The Prostitutes Ikeda of the Japanese military "comfort women" problem. A recent attempt to place Japan's system of military sexual servitude in international perspective is Onozawa, Akane Sei baibai, Nihongun "ianfu" mondai to kokkashakai The Prostitutes Ikeda and selling of sex, the Japanese military "comfort women" problem, and the state actor.

Dai yonji gendai rekishigaku no seika to kadai Fourth annual issue: accomplishments and problems of modern historiographyVol. Five of the authors writing Prostitutes Ikeda Denying the Comfort Women have contributed essays to this volume. Park, Yuha Zeid, R. See also the Prostitutes Ikeda 11, report of U. Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights Korea: The long awaited apology to "comfort women" victims is yet to come.

March United Nations Committee Against Torture May 12, p. Committee Prostitutes Ikeda Historical Facts The Washington PostJune The ruling Liberal Democratic Party contributed 29 "assenters," but Prostitutes Ikeda belonged to the centrist Democratic Party of Japan.

The advertisement was written and endorsed by the Committee for Historical Facts, which was responding to a full-page ad in the Washington Post of April 26,paid for by the Washington Coalition for Comfort Women Issues and entitled "The Truth about Comfort Women. The Washington Coalition accused the Abe Cabinet of "retreating from previous statements of contrition and launching a campaign to deny that the government was directly involved" in the mobilization of comfort Prostitutes Ikeda.

The larger backdrop to the dueling ads, however, was an imminent U. House of Representatives resolution calling on Japan to admit full responsibility for military sexual slavery and make just restitution to survivors the resolution was passed on July 5, Five years later, the Committee for Historical Facts placed a nearly Prostitutes Ikeda advertisement in the New Jersey Star-Ledger on November 4, almost two months before the second Abe administration took office.

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The ad abridged the list of "facts" from five to three, retaining the accusation that the comfort women were Prostitutes Ikeda prostitutes Fact 3. This time, Abe himself and nine of his soon-to-be Cabinet members signed on as "assenters. Despite these deceptive recruitment practices, most women working in the comfort stations ultimately consented to work as prostitutes. There were also women who were unable to leave their brothels, however, because they had been sold by their impoverished families or because they owed Prostitutes Ikeda to the brothel.

Contracts forcing women to work at brothels in repayment of debts were eventually abolished by a SCAP order SCAPIN Prostitutes Ikeda Januaryalthough Prostitutes Ikeda Japanese officials were skeptical of how well such a prohibition could be enforced. Women working in RAA facilities faced the usual sexual violence common to prostitution in the sex trade.

Women working as dancers Prostitutes Ikeda especially vulnerable targets for rape. Additionally, military police and GIs sometimes demanded free service or refunds.

Prostitutes Ikeda power inequality between Japanese police and Allied soldiers made it difficult for the women to complain. On October 14, the Japanese police lifted their restrictions on brothels and night clubs, a de facto endorsement of the non-RAA sex industry catering to Occupation troops. The RAA facilities had also been illegal, of course, but had enjoyed police protection for obvious reasons. A December 29 GHQ estimate placed the number of Prostitutes Ikeda in Tokyo at 6, not counting Prostitutes Ikeda prostitutes, who far outnumbered the number of women working in brothels.

From the beginning of the Occupation, some Allied military officials cooperated with the Japanese Prostitutes Ikeda system. According to the governors of Chiba Prostitutes Ikeda Kanagawa prefectures, American commanders contacted them in September and requested the establishment of brothels for their troops, offering US military police help if necessary.

American medical officers Prostitutes Ikeda prophylactic stations in red-light districts and inside the larger brothels that distributed tens Prostitutes Ikeda thousands of condoms Prostitutes Ikeda week. Despite these precautions, the problem of sexually transmitted diseases STDs; primarily gonorrhea and syphilis became a serious public health issue. By earlyProstitutes Ikeda a quarter of all US occupation forces were estimated to be infected, and nearly half of some units.

Prostitutes Ikeda response, GHQ imposed strict STD check procedures for prostitutes, placed certain brothels with high Prostitutes Ikeda of infection off-limits to troops, and helped re-establish clinics and laboratories many of which had been destroyed during the war to diagnose infections. Not all those Prostitutes Ikeda the occupation forces accepted the widespread patronizing of Japanese-sanctioned brothels by US troops. Some unit commanders considered prostitution an "endemic problem that plagued their Prostitutes Ikeda and tried with limited success to prevent their men from fraternizing with the Japanese.

By early military chaplains were condemning SCAP's cooperation, citing violations Prostitutes Ikeda War Department policies and the moral degradation of US troops it caused.

The complaints embarrassed Gen. As such, non-RAA brothel owners were easily able to circumvent the order by, for example, "renting" space in their former brothels to "voluntary" prostitutes. Ultimately, GHQ responded by making all brothels and other facilities offering prostitution off-limits to Allied personnel on March 25, The immediate effects of the end of authorized Prostitutes Ikeda prostitution was the sudden unemployment of thousands of women, many of whom went on to become Prostitutes Ikeda street prostitutes.

The dispersal of prostitution made it harder for GHQ to control STDs and also caused an increase in sexual violence by GIs, from an average of 40 women a day before the SCAP order to an estimated per day immediately after, however these figures cannot be independently confirmed. Because the RAA and related systems were inspired by Japanese wartime experiences, their structures and terminologies were based on the pre-existing wartime comfort women system.

Brothels were referred to with the euphemisms "comfort stations" and "comfort facilities", and prostitutes were referred to as "comfort women". Because of this, many English-language and Japanese scholars of the RAA continue to use those terms in their research. To what degree the two systems are actually comparable is a matter Prostitutes Ikeda debate among historians, however.

Some, such as Michael Molasky and Yuki Tanakastress the "striking" similarities between Prostitutes Ikeda two and refer to the RAA as "systematic exploitation". Ikuhiko Hata indicates that the two systems were comparable in both methods of recruitment and administration in spite of the difference of the presence or absence of intermediary people. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Recreation and Amusement Association Native name.

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University of California Prostitutes Ikeda. ISBN The New York Times. Retrieved New York: Routledge. The Sociology Quarterly. Experience [Archive] - Prostitutes Ikeda Phora". ISBN p. Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on Stanford University Press. Bix Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa.

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The court, in ruling upon the question of whether or not an inference could be drawn from such refusal, said: "We are here met by the argument that it is a violation of the constitutional privilege to draw an inference from the refusal to testify when put upon the ground of the privilege against self-incrimination. American medical officers established prophylactic stations in red-light districts and inside the larger brothels that distributed tens of thousands of condoms a week. After the overthrow of the feudal regime in , the new Meiji government devised a licensing system patterned on "modern" European models.